The General Situation of Europe in the 15th Century and the Foundations of the Renaissance

War, Politics, and Ideology

With the conquest of Istanbul by II. Mehmet, a new era began in the world. Many Greek scholars who fled Istanbul moved to Italy, where they became pioneers of the Renaissance movement.

When we delve deeper into the history of the 15th century, we see a growing interest in the Hellenistic age. Besides the Holy Roman Empire in Europe, in Italy, the kingdoms, duchies, and city-states also claimed to be heirs of the Roman Empire. Many Italian city-states considered themselves inheritors of the Roman legacy. Although there were attempts to unify these entities, they were unsuccessful. However, a balance of power was always maintained. When we examine 15th-century Italy, we see fragmented states engaged in struggles against each other. These were the Duchies of Venice, Milan, Genoa, Florence, and Savoy, the Kingdom of Naples, and the Papal States.

Due to its commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire, Venice refrained from participating in Crusades until the 18th century. Genoa frequently provided naval assistance to the Ottomans during the Ottoman-Byzantine wars and gained trade privileges. In the Mediterranean, Venice and Genoa had significant influence. The Kingdom of Naples had close ties with Spain due to family relations, and the Papacy sought to maintain good relations with Catholic France.

The 15th and 16th centuries in Europe were politically unstable. After the conquest of Istanbul, attempts by the Pope to organize Crusades became frequent. However, these efforts remained limited to meetings, as European states could not unite, and the initiatives failed before they began.

Portuguese sailors of the era became the first Europeans to reach India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope. They made several ventures in Africa, Arabia, and India and began to claim rights in these regions. The Egyptian governor of the time, by the Sultan's order, fought against Portuguese pirates. Although no significant victories were achieved, they managed to capture an important coastal region in Arabia, gaining an opportunity to monitor the Portuguese.

As for the Spanish, they were engaged in battles against the Muslims of Andalusia. They established inquisitions and attempted to forcibly Christianize the Andalusians. Meanwhile, the famous navigator Christopher Columbus acquired three large galleys from Spain and set out to reach India. He believed that traveling westward would lead him to India. On his first voyage, he reached the Caribbean and returned with some loot. He conducted three more major voyages and eventually reached the Americas (South and Latin America). Columbus returned with his ships filled with valuable treasures and was greeted with a grand ceremony by the Spanish. The European peninsula states now began a race for colonization. For Spain, the foundations of the title "Invincible Armada" were being laid.

Italy experienced rapid development thanks to the migration of Byzantine scholars. Among the Italian population, interest in and curiosity about Latin increased significantly, and books began to be written meticulously in this style. Books from the Greek-Hellenistic period started to be translated. In northern Italy, particularly in Florence, Roman law began to be taught. Florence would become the starting point of the Renaissance. The dusty pages of the past were being cleaned, and Italian artists began searching for Roman works across Europe.

In terms of administration, finance, and industry, Italy was quite advanced compared to the rest of Europe at the time. Some fundamental rights and freedoms existed among the Italian population. One of the reasons the Renaissance started there was precisely this. Italian art was no longer confined to the Church and began to spread to the public. While Gothic art was dominant in France and Flemish art in Germany, Baroque art started to emerge and develop in Italy.

Feudal lords were losing their power. As mentioned earlier, the ancient world began to serve as a model. The critical humanistic ideas of Lorenzo Valla, a monk, sparked the flames of the Renaissance. His critiques of the Pope served as guidance for later humanists.

We noted that the Renaissance began in Florence. The Medici family, who ruled Florence, valued artists and hosted them in their palaces. They invited artists from across Europe to their city and supported their work. During this period, great artists like Michelangelo, Donatello, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci produced significant works. While Michelangelo, Donatello, and Leonardo served Florence, Raphael moved to Rome at the Pope's invitation and created remarkable works there. During this era, significant advancements were made in painting, sculpture, and architecture, and Baroque art began to spread across Europe.

Due to the lack of political unity and internal conflicts in Italy, the wealth and prosperity brought by the Renaissance eventually shifted to other European states, and Italy's light began to fade.